Associate Membership

Anti-convulsant, analgesic, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory

Phytol (PH) is a natural diterpene alcohol found in a variety of plants, including cannabis. It is particularly abundant in the leaves of the cannabis plant and is considered one of the non-psychoactive compounds present in cannabis. Phytol is often derived from the degradation of chlorophyll, and it contributes to the characteristic aroma and flavor of cannabis. While it is not known for its psychoactive properties, Phytol has gained attention for its potential health benefits. Research has suggested that Phytol may have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective properties, which could make it a valuable compound in the medical and therapeutic applications of cannabis. It has also been studied for its role in modulating the endocannabinoid system, potentially influencing the effects of other cannabinoids in cannabis. However, further research is needed to fully understand Phytol’s specific actions, mechanisms of action, and potential therapeutic applications within the context of cannabis and human health.

The article titled “Phytol, a diterpene alcohol, inhibits the inflammatory response by reducing cytokine production and oxidative stress” by Silva et al., published in the journal Fundam Clin Pharmacol in 2014, provides important insights into the anti-inflammatory properties of Phytol. The study investigates how Phytol, a diterpene alcohol, exerts its anti-inflammatory effects by targeting two key aspects of inflammation: cytokine production and oxidative stress. The findings indicate that Phytol can significantly reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and mitigate oxidative stress, both of which are pivotal contributors to inflammatory processes. Similarly, the article titled “Phytol, a Chlorophyll Component, Produces Antihyperalgesic, Anti-inflammatory, and Antiarthritic Effects: Possible NFκB Pathway Involvement and Reduced Levels of the Proinflammatory Cytokines TNF-α and IL-6” by Carvalho et al. provides valuable insights into the anti-inflammatory properties of Phytol. The study suggests that Phytol may exert its anti-inflammatory actions by modulating the NFκB pathway and reducing the levels of proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6. This mechanism of action aligns with its observed anti-inflammatory effects and underscores its potential as a natural compound for managing inflammatory conditions. However, further research and clinical studies are needed to fully understand the therapeutic implications and safety profile of Phytol in treating inflammation-related disorders.

In the article titled “Anticonvulsant effect of phytol in a pilocarpine model in mice” by J.P. Costa et al., published in Neuroscience Letters in 2012, the authors investigate the potential anti-convulsant properties of Phytol. The study employs a mouse model using pilocarpine, a chemical inducer of seizures, to assess the effects of Phytol on convulsive behavior. The findings of this research reveal that Phytol demonstrates an anticonvulsant effect, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent in the management of seizures. This study contributes valuable insights into the neuroprotective properties of Phytol and its potential role in mitigating epileptic episodes. While the exact mechanisms behind its anticonvulsant action need further elucidation, these results underscore the promise of Phytol as a candidate for the development of novel antiepileptic treatments. Further research, including clinical trials, is essential to validate its efficacy and safety for human use in epilepsy management.

The article titled “Neuroprotective effect of the marine macroalga Gelidiella acerosa: identification of active compounds through bioactivity-guided fractionation” by Arif Nisha Syad et al., published in Pharmaceutical Biology in 2016, delves into the neuroprotective properties of Phytol. Through bioactivity-guided fractionation, the research identifies Phytol as one of the active compounds with neuroprotective effects. This suggests that Phytol has the capacity to safeguard neuronal cells and potentially mitigate neurological disorders or conditions associated with neuronal damage. While this study provides valuable insights into the neuroprotective properties of Phytol derived from Gelidiella acerosa, further research is required to elucidate the precise mechanisms of action and its potential application in neuroprotection and neurodegenerative disease management. Nevertheless, this investigation highlights Phytol as a promising candidate for future research in the realm of neuroprotection and neurobiology.

The article titled “Phytol from Faeces Bombycis alleviated migraine pain by inhibiting Nav1.7 sodium channels” by Jianan Song et al., published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology in 2023, explores the analgesic properties of Phytol. The study investigates Phytol’s potential to alleviate migraine pain by targeting Nav1.7 sodium channels. Nav1.7 channels are known to play a crucial role in pain perception and transmission. The research findings indicate that Phytol may effectively inhibit these channels, which suggests its analgesic potential in relieving migraine pain. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying Phytol’s pain-relieving properties and highlights its potential as a natural compound for the management of migraine and possibly other pain-related conditions. Further research and clinical studies will be essential to confirm and explore the full extent of Phytol’s analgesic benefits.

Anti-tumor, antibacterial, anxiolytic, neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory

Bisabolol (BI), also known as alpha-bisabolol or levomenol, is a naturally occurring terpene found in various plant species, including cannabis. It is one of the many aromatic compounds that contribute to the complex chemical profile of cannabis, giving it its distinctive scent and flavor. Bisabolol is renowned for its potential health benefits and soothing properties, making it a sought-after compound in the cannabis plant. It is often used in cannabis-based products, such as topicals and skincare items, due to its d antioxidant, and skin-soothing qualities. Additionally, Bisabolol is believed to have potential therapeutic applications, including its use as an analgesic and anxiolytic agent. While cannabis contains a multitude of compounds, including cannabinoids like THC and CBD, Bisabolol’s presence adds to the overall pharmacological diversity of the plant and may contribute to the entourage effect, where various compounds work together synergistically to produce therapeutic effects. However, further research is needed to fully understand the specific roles and therapeutic potential of Bisabolol in the context of cannabis.

In the article titled “Inhibitory effects of (-)-α-bisabolol on LPS-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophages” by Seungbeom Kim et al., published in Food and Chemical Toxicology in 2011, the anti-inflammatory properties of Bisabolol are investigated using an in vitro model of LPS-induced inflammation in RAW264.7 macrophages. The study demonstrates that (-)-α-bisabolol effectively inhibits the inflammatory response in these immune cells. This suggests that Bisabolol may exert anti-inflammatory effects by modulating the release of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines. Such findings underscore the potential therapeutic utility of Bisabolol in the management of inflammatory conditions and provide valuable insights into its mechanisms of action at the cellular level. Also, the article “Anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of (−)-α-bisabolol in rodents” by Rocha et al., published in Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology in 2011, found that that α-bisabolol exhibits anti-inflammatory activity in rodents, suggesting its potential as an anti-inflammatory agent. While these studies contribute to our understanding of Bisabolol’s anti-inflammatory properties, further research, including in vivo studies and clinical trials, would be necessary to confirm its efficacy and safety in a broader context for potential medical applications.

The article titled “Neutrophil Immunomodulatory Activity of Farnesene, a Component of Artemisia dracunculus Essential Oils” by Schepetkin et al. explores the anti-inflammatory properties of farnesene. Farnesene is identified as a component of Artemisia dracunculus essential oils and is investigated for its potential immunomodulatory effects on neutrophils, a type of white blood cell crucial in the inflammatory response. The study indicates that farnesene exhibits immunomodulatory activity, suggesting its potential role in mitigating inflammation. This finding is significant, as excessive or prolonged inflammation is associated with various chronic diseases and health conditions. Farnesene’s ability to modulate neutrophil function implies its possible use in the development of anti-inflammatory therapies. However, further research is needed to fully elucidate the mechanisms and therapeutic applications of farnesene in the context of inflammation and immune regulation.

In the article titled “Amyloid-β induced neuropathological actions are suppressed by Padina gymnospora and its active constituent α-bisabolol in Neuro2a cells and transgenic Caenorhabditis elegans Alzheimer’s model” by Balakrishnan Shanmuganathan et al., the neuroprotective properties of Bisabolol (α-bisabolol) are investigated in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. The study employs both cellular and transgenic nematode models to explore the impact of Bisabolol on amyloid-β-induced neurotoxicity. The findings suggest that Bisabolol exhibits promising neuroprotective effects by mitigating neuropathological actions associated with Alzheimer’s disease. This suggests that Bisabolol may hold potential as a therapeutic agent in the management of Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative disorders, potentially offering a novel avenue for the development of treatments that target the underlying mechanisms of these diseases. However, further research, particularly in mammalian models and clinical trials, is necessary to validate and fully understand the scope of Bisabolol’s neuroprotective properties and its applicability in human healthcare.

In the article titled “Antitumor activity of (-)-α-bisabolol-based thiosemicarbazones against human tumor cell lines” by Alan P. da Silva et al., published in the European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry in 2010, the authors explore the potential anti-tumor properties of Bisabolol-derived compounds. The study investigates thiosemicarbazones derived from (-)-α-bisabolol and their effects on various human tumor cell lines. Correspondingly, the article titled “Insight into the apoptosis-inducing action of α-bisabolol towards malignant tumor cells: Involvement of lipid rafts and Bid” by Elena Darra et al. delves into the potential anti-tumor properties of Bisabolol (α-bisabolol). This study investigates the mechanisms underlying α-bisabolol’s ability to induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in malignant tumor cells. The findings suggest that α-bisabolol’s anti-tumor effects may be attributed to its involvement in disrupting lipid rafts, which play a crucial role in cell signaling and membrane organization. Additionally, the study implicates the activation of the pro-apoptotic protein Bid as a potential mediator of α-bisabolol’s action. These insights shed light on the molecular pathways through which α-bisabolol exerts its anti-tumor effects, providing valuable information for further research into its potential as a therapeutic agent in cancer treatment. However, it is important to note that more extensive preclinical and clinical studies are necessary to validate these findings and assess the safety and efficacy of α-bisabolol as a cancer treatment option.

In the study titled “Evidence for the involvement of the GABAergic, but not serotonergic transmission in the anxiolytic-like effect of bisabolol in the mouse elevated plus maze” by Tabari and Tehrani, published in Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology in 2017, the anxiolytic properties of bisabolol are investigated. The research focuses on the mechanism of bisabolol’s anxiolytic effects using the elevated plus maze model in mice. The findings of this study suggest that bisabolol’s anxiolytic-like effects may primarily involve the GABAergic transmission system, which plays a crucial role in regulating anxiety and relaxation. This implies that bisabolol may modulate anxiety by affecting the GABAergic neurotransmission, which is known for its inhibitory action in the central nervous system. Notably, the study highlights the potential therapeutic utility of bisabolol in addressing anxiety-related conditions and provides valuable insights into the underlying neuropharmacological mechanisms of its anxiolytic properties.

Neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory

Farnesene (FA) is a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon compound that can be found in the cannabis plant, among other plant species. In cannabis, farnesene contributes to the plant’s unique chemical profile, known as its terpene profile, which influences its aroma, flavor, and potential therapeutic effects. Farnesene is a significant component of the complex mixture of terpenes found in cannabis, and its levels can vary among different strains and chemovars. While farnesene’s specific effects in cannabis are still being explored, it is known to have a pleasant, fruity, and woody aroma that can contribute to the overall sensory experience of consuming cannabis. Additionally, farnesene, like many terpenes, may have potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, making it an intriguing area of research within the broader field of cannabis science and medicine. Further studies are needed to fully understand the specific role of farnesene in cannabis and its potential therapeutic applications.

The article titled “In vitro neuroprotective effects of farnesene sesquiterpene on Alzheimer’s disease model of differentiated neuroblastoma cell line” by Mehmet Enes Arslan, Hasan Türkez, and Adil Mardinoğlu explores the potential neuroprotective properties of farnesene in the context of Alzheimer’s disease. The study utilizes an in vitro model with a differentiated neuroblastoma cell line to investigate the effects of farnesene on neuronal health. The findings of this research suggest that farnesene has neuroprotective potential, as it demonstrates beneficial effects on the Alzheimer’s disease model, which could be indicative of its ability to mitigate neurodegenerative processes. While in vitro studies provide valuable insights, further in vivo research and clinical trials are essential to confirm the neuroprotective properties of farnesene and explore its potential as a therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease. Nevertheless, this study highlights the promising avenue of farnesene as a compound with neuroprotective attributes worthy of further investigation in the realm of neurodegenerative diseases.

The article titled “Neutrophil Immunomodulatory Activity of Farnesene, a Component of Artemisia dracunculus Essential Oils” by Schepetkin et al. explores the anti-inflammatory properties of farnesene. Farnesene is identified as a component of Artemisia dracunculus essential oils and is investigated for its potential immunomodulatory effects on neutrophils, a type of white blood cell crucial in the inflammatory response. The study indicates that farnesene exhibits immunomodulatory activity, suggesting its potential role in mitigating inflammation. This finding is significant, as excessive or prolonged inflammation is associated with various chronic diseases and health conditions. Farnesene’s ability to modulate neutrophil function implies its possible use in the development of anti-inflammatory therapies. However, further research is needed to fully elucidate the mechanisms and therapeutic applications of farnesene in the context of inflammation and immune regulation.

Gastro-protective, anti-inflammatory

Terpineol (TP) is a naturally occurring monoterpene alcohol that can be found in various cannabis strains, contributing to the plant’s distinctive aroma and flavor. Terpineol is not exclusive to cannabis; it is also present in a wide range of other plants, including pine trees, lilacs, and lime blossoms. In cannabis, terpineol is part of the complex mixture of terpenes that give each strain its unique scent and taste profile, often described as floral, citrusy, or piney. Beyond its role as a flavor and fragrance compound, terpineol has been the subject of research for its potential therapeutic properties. Some studies suggest that terpineol may have sedative, relaxing, and anti-inflammatory effects, making it of interest to both medical and recreational users of cannabis. While the research on terpineol’s specific benefits is ongoing, its presence in cannabis and other plants underscores the complex interplay between terpenes and cannabinoids in influencing the overall effects of cannabis strains.

The article titled “Gastroprotective activity of α-terpineol in two experimental models of gastric ulcer in rats,” published in Daru in 2011, investigates the gastro-protective properties of α-terpineol. This study explores how α-terpineol, a natural terpene found in various plants, exerts protective effects on the stomach in two different experimental models of gastric ulcers in rats. The findings suggest that α-terpineol exhibits gastroprotective activity, indicating its potential to mitigate gastric ulcers. This effect could be attributed to its ability to modulate various factors involved in ulcer formation, such as reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. While these results are promising, it’s crucial to emphasize that further research, including clinical trials in humans, is essential to validate the practical applications of α-terpineol as a gastroprotective agent. Nevertheless, this study provides valuable insights into the potential gastroprotective properties of terpineol, contributing to the exploration of natural compounds for stomach-related conditions.

The article titled “α-Terpineol Reduces Mechanical Hypernociception and Inflammatory Response,” published in Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology in 2012, investigates the anti-inflammatory properties of terpineol, specifically α-terpineol. The study explores how α-terpineol impacts mechanical hypernociception (increased sensitivity to pain) and the inflammatory response. The findings suggest that α-terpineol exhibits anti-inflammatory effects, as it reduces mechanical hypernociception and suppresses the inflammatory response. This indicates that α-terpineol may have the potential to mitigate pain and inflammation, potentially through modulating pathways involved in the inflammatory process. These results provide valuable insights into the therapeutic potential of terpineol as an anti-inflammatory agent, highlighting its relevance in the context of pain management and inflammatory conditions. Nonetheless, further research, including clinical studies, would be necessary to determine its practical applications in medical contexts.

Immunomodulatory, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-depressant

Geraniol (GE) is a naturally occurring terpene found in various plants, including cannabis. It is responsible for the distinctive floral and fruity aroma often associated with cannabis strains. Geraniol is widely used in the fragrance and flavor industries due to its pleasant scent and taste. In addition to its aromatic properties, Geraniol has gained attention for its potential health benefits. It possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which are valuable for protecting cells from oxidative stress and reducing inflammation in the body. Geraniol has also been studied for its potential anti-cancer effects, as it may inhibit the growth of cancer cells and promote their apoptosis (cell death). While it is present in cannabis, Geraniol is just one of many terpenes found in the plant, and its specific effects in conjunction with other compounds like cannabinoids are an area of ongoing research. Its diverse applications and potential therapeutic properties make Geraniol an interesting component of cannabis and other plants with promising health-related implications.

The article titled “The Inhibitory Efficiencies of Geraniol as an Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial, Natural Agent Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Infection in vivo,” published in Infection and Drug Resistance in 2021, explores the anti-inflammatory properties of geraniol. This study investigates how geraniol, a natural compound, functions as an anti-inflammatory agent. The research suggests that geraniol exhibits inhibitory effects against inflammation, highlighting its potential as an anti-inflammatory agent. This finding is significant because inflammation is a crucial component of various health conditions, and natural compounds like geraniol may offer an alternative or complementary approach to managing inflammatory responses. Furthermore, the article titled “Geraniol targets KV1.3 ion channel and exhibits anti-inflammatory activity in vitro and in vivo,” published in Fitoterapia in 2019, also explores the anti-inflammatory properties of geraniol. This research investigates how geraniol interacts with the KV1.3 ion channel and its potential anti-inflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo. The study suggests that geraniol can target the KV1.3 ion channel, which is involved in immune responses and inflammation. By modulating this channel, geraniol may exert anti-inflammatory activity, reducing inflammation-related processes. These findings point to geraniol as a promising natural compound with potential anti-inflammatory benefits, though further research, including clinical studies in humans, would be necessary to fully understand its practical applications in managing inflammatory conditions. Nonetheless, this study provides valuable insights into the anti-inflammatory properties of geraniol.

The article titled “Cymbopogon martinii essential oil and geraniol at noncytotoxic concentrations exerted immunomodulatory/anti-inflammatory effects in human monocytes,” published in the Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology in 2014, investigates geraniol’s immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects. The study explores how geraniol, a natural compound found in certain essential oils, impacts human monocytes, a type of immune cell. The findings indicate that geraniol, when used at noncytotoxic concentrations, exerts immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects on these immune cells. This suggests that geraniol may regulate the immune response and potentially reduce inflammation, which could have implications for various immune-related conditions. However, while this research offers valuable insights into the immunomodulatory properties of geraniol, further studies, including clinical trials, are necessary to determine the full extent of its practical applications in immunotherapy and anti-inflammatory treatments. Nonetheless, the study underscores the potential of geraniol as a natural immunomodulatory agent.

The article titled “Research progress of Geraniol in tumor therapy,” published in the Proceedings of Anticancer Research, delves into the potential anti-tumor properties of geraniol. This research investigates the progress and advancements in utilizing geraniol for cancer therapy. Geraniol has garnered attention for its possible anti-cancer effects, and this study contributes to the growing body of research in this area. While the specific mechanisms by which geraniol may combat tumor growth are multifaceted and still under investigation, some studies have indicated that geraniol can interfere with various cellular processes, including apoptosis (programmed cell death) and cell cycle regulation, potentially leading to the suppression of cancer cell proliferation. Studies have also alluded to geraniol enhancing the effects of chemotherapy. For example, The article titled “Geraniol, a component of plant essential oils, modulates DNA synthesis and potentiates 5-fluorouracil efficacy on human colon tumor xenografts,” published in Cancer Letters in 2004, explores the anti-tumor properties of geraniol. This study investigates how geraniol, a natural component of plant essential oils, affects DNA synthesis and enhances the efficacy of the chemotherapy drug 5-fluorouracil in human colon tumor xenografts. The findings suggest that geraniol can modulate DNA synthesis, and when combined with 5-fluorouracil, it demonstrates the potential to enhance the drug’s effectiveness against colon tumors. This indicates that geraniol may possess anti-tumor properties that can synergize with conventional chemotherapy, potentially improving treatment outcomes for cancer patients. However, it’s crucial to acknowledge that while these results are promising, further research, including clinical trials, is essential to validate geraniol’s practical applications in cancer treatment. Nonetheless, this study provides valuable insights into the potential anti-tumor effects of geraniol.

The article titled “Geraniol Induces Antinociceptive Effect in Mice Evaluated in Behavioural and Electrophysiological Models,” published in Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology in 2017, examines the analgesic properties of geraniol. This research investigates how geraniol, a naturally occurring compound, exerts an antinociceptive effect, meaning it reduces pain perception in mice. The study employs both behavioral and electrophysiological models to evaluate the analgesic effects of geraniol. The findings suggest that geraniol induces an antinociceptive effect, providing evidence of its potential as an analgesic agent. This is a significant discovery as it suggests that geraniol may have the capacity to modulate pain perception pathways, offering a potential avenue for the development of pain-relief strategies. However, it’s essential to emphasize that further research, including clinical studies in humans, is necessary to determine the practical applications of geraniol as an analgesic and to establish its safety and efficacy in pain management. Nevertheless, this study offers valuable insights into the potential analgesic properties of geraniol.

The article titled “Geraniol produces antidepressant-like effects in a chronic unpredictable mild stress mice model,” published in Physiology & Behavior in 2015, investigates the potential antidepressant effects of geraniol. This study focuses on how geraniol, a natural compound, impacts depression-like behaviors in a chronic unpredictable mild stress mice model. The research findings suggest that geraniol produces antidepressant-like effects in the mice, indicating its potential in alleviating depressive symptoms. This is particularly significant because depression is a complex mental health disorder, and alternative approaches to conventional antidepressant medications are of interest. However, on the other side of the spectrum, the article titled “Depressant effect of geraniol on the central nervous system of rats: Behavior and ECoG power spectra,” published in the Biomedical Journal in 2018, explores the potential antidepressant effects of geraniol. This study investigates how geraniol affects the central nervous system and behavioral responses in rats. Surprisingly, the research suggests that geraniol has a depressant effect on the central nervous system rather than exhibiting antidepressant properties. This unexpected finding contradicts the assumption that geraniol may have mood-enhancing effects. However, it’s important to note that the study’s results are based on animal models, and the translation of these effects to humans may differ. Thus, while this research provides valuable insights into the physiological effects of geraniol, it underscores the complexity of terpenes’ actions on the central nervous system and highlights the need for further investigation to fully understand their potential in managing depression and related conditions.

Anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory

Pinene (PI) is a naturally occurring terpene found in cannabis and numerous other plants, including pine trees, rosemary, and sage. It is one of the most common terpenes in the plant kingdom and contributes to the characteristic aroma of pine forests and certain cannabis strains. Pinene is further categorized into two isomers: alpha-pinene (α-pinene) and beta-pinene (β-pinene), both of which can be found in various cannabis varieties. In cannabis, pinene is believed to play a role in the entourage effect, where the combination of different cannabinoids and terpenes synergistically influences the overall therapeutic and psychoactive effects of the plant. Pinene is known for its potential health benefits, including anti-inflammatory, bronchodilator, and anxiolytic properties. Additionally, some research suggests that pinene may counteract some of the memory impairment associated with THC, potentially making it relevant to the management of the cognitive effects of cannabis use. Overall, pinene’s presence in cannabis adds complexity to the plant’s chemical profile and may contribute to its diverse range of effects and potential medical applications.

The article titled “Alpha-pinene exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through the suppression of MAPKs and the NF-ΚB pathway in mouse peritoneal macrophages,” published in The American Journal of Chinese Medicine in 2015, investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of alpha-pinene. The study focuses on its impact on mouse peritoneal macrophages and finds that alpha-pinene demonstrates anti-inflammatory activity by suppressing the MAPKs (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases) and the NF-ΚB (Nuclear Factor Kappa B) pathway. These molecular pathways are known to play critical roles in regulating the body’s inflammatory responses. The results suggest that alpha-pinene may have potential as an anti-inflammatory agent by modulating these key signaling pathways in immune cells. While the study provides valuable insights into alpha-pinene’s anti-inflammatory properties, further research is needed to explore its potential applications in clinical settings and to confirm its safety and efficacy for human use.

The article titled “α-Pinene Enhances the Anticancer Activity of Natural Killer Cells via ERK/AKT Pathway,” published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences in 2021, explores the potential anti-cancer effects of alpha-pinene. The study investigates how alpha-pinene, a major component of pinene, influences the activity of natural killer (NK) cells, which are part of the immune system’s defense against cancer. The research findings suggest that alpha-pinene can enhance the anticancer activity of NK cells by modulating the ERK/AKT pathway. This implies that alpha-pinene may have a role in strengthening the body’s immune response against cancer cells. Similarly, The study, “α-Pinene Induces Apoptotic Cell Death via Caspase Activation in Human Ovarian Cancer Cells,” published in Medical Science Monitor in 2019, investigates how alpha-pinene induces apoptotic cell death in human ovarian cancer cells through caspase activation. The findings suggest that alpha-pinene may have anti-cancer properties by triggering programmed cell death in cancer cells. Caspase activation is a key process in apoptosis, indicating that alpha-pinene could potentially influence the regulation of cell survival and death pathways. Also, the study titled “α-Pinene inhibits human prostate cancer growth in a mouse xenograft model,” published in 2017, explores the potential anti-cancer effects of alpha-pinene. In this research, alpha-pinene was examined for its ability to inhibit the growth of prostate cancer cells in a mouse xenograft model. The findings of this study suggest that alpha-pinene possesses promising anti-cancer properties, specifically in the context of prostate cancer. It appears to inhibit tumor growth, indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent for prostate cancer treatment. However, it’s important to note that while these results are encouraging, further research, including clinical trials in humans, would be necessary to validate the effectiveness and safety of alpha-pinene as a cancer treatment. Nevertheless, this study provides valuable insights into the potential anti-cancer properties of alpha-pinene, offering a promising avenue for future research in the field of oncology.

The article titled “Antibacterial Activity and Time-kill Kinetics of Positive Enantiomer of α-pinene Against Strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli,” published in Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry in 2018, investigates the antibacterial effects of the positive enantiomer of alpha-pinene. The study explores the antimicrobial properties of alpha-pinene against bacterial strains, specifically Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The findings indicate that the positive enantiomer of alpha-pinene exhibits antibacterial activity against these bacterial strains. Moreover, the time-kill kinetics suggest that alpha-pinene’s antibacterial effects may involve a gradual reduction in bacterial viability over time. These results highlight the potential of alpha-pinene as a natural antibacterial agent, which could have implications for the development of novel antimicrobial treatments. However, further research, including clinical trials, would be necessary to fully understand its practical applications in clinical settings.

Antidepressant, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory

Limonene (LI) is a prominent terpene found in cannabis, contributing to its aromatic profile and potential health benefits. It is a cyclic monoterpene that is widely distributed in various plants, including citrus fruits, as well as in some cannabis strains. Limonene is known for its distinct citrus aroma, which gives some cannabis varieties a lemony or orange-like scent. Beyond its aromatic qualities, limonene has gained attention for its potential therapeutic properties. It is considered to have anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and mood-enhancing effects, making it a compound of interest in both the cannabis industry and natural medicine. Some studies suggest that limonene may play a role in modulating the effects of cannabinoids like THC and CBD, potentially influencing the overall experience and therapeutic potential of cannabis strains. However, further research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and its specific applications in cannabis-based products and therapies.

The study titled “Oral administration of d-Limonene controls inflammation in rat colitis and displays anti-inflammatory properties as diet supplementation in humans,” published in the journal Life Sciences in 2013, provides insights into the potential anti-inflammatory effects of limonene. The research examines the impact of oral d-limonene administration on colitis-induced inflammation in rats and also evaluates limonene’s anti-inflammatory properties as a dietary supplement in humans. The findings suggest that limonene exhibits significant anti-inflammatory activity, reducing inflammation in rat colitis models and potentially serving as a dietary component with anti-inflammatory benefits for humans. This suggests that limonene may have therapeutic potential in managing inflammatory conditions, though further clinical studies in human subjects would be necessary to fully comprehend the extent of its anti-inflammatory effects and its practical applications in medical and dietary contexts.

The article titled “Neuroprotective Potential of Limonene and Limonene Containing Natural Products,” published in the journal Molecules in July 2021, explores the potential neuroprotective properties of limonene and natural products containing limonene. The study delves into the effects of limonene on various aspects of neural health, including its ability to mitigate depressive behavior, regulate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and maintain the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters. Additionally, the research investigates the impact of limonene on the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor in the hippocampus. The findings suggest that limonene may have therapeutic potential in safeguarding neuroendocrine, neurotrophic, and monoaminergic systems. Furthermore, inhaling limonene notably reversed depressive symptoms, reduced excessive activity in the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, and countered the decline in levels of monoamine neurotransmitters. It also led to a decrease in the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its receptor in the hippocampus. Consequently, the research suggests that limonene’s antidepressant effects are associated with enhancements in the neuroendocrine, neurotrophic, and monoaminergic systems (Zhang 2019). 

The article titled “Limonene has anxiolytic activity via adenosine A2A receptor-mediated regulation of dopaminergic and GABAergic neuronal function in the striatum,” published in Phytomedicine in 2021, presents a study that investigates the anxiolytic effects of limonene and the underlying mechanisms. According to the research, limonene appears to have anxiolytic properties by modulating the adenosine A2A receptor, which in turn regulates the function of dopaminergic and GABAergic neurons in the striatum. This finding suggests that limonene may contribute to anxiety relief through its influence on neurotransmitter systems involved in mood regulation. Similarly, in the article titled “Effects of Limonene on Chronic Restraint Stress-Induced Memory Impairment and Anxiety in Male Rats,” published in Neurophysiology in 2019, the authors investigate the potential anxiolytic effects of limonene. The results of the study suggest that limonene may have a positive impact in mitigating both memory deficits and anxiety-related behaviors in stressed rats. This indicates that limonene may possess anxiolytic properties, potentially attributed to its ability to modulate neurotransmitter levels, reduce oxidative stress, or influence neuroinflammatory pathways. While these findings are promising, it’s important to note that further research, including clinical studies in humans, would be necessary to validate and fully understand the extent of limonene’s potential in managing anxiety.

Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic

Sabinene (SA) is a naturally occurring terpene commonly found in various plants, including cannabis. Terpenes like sabinene contribute to the distinct aroma and flavor profiles of different cannabis strains, playing a significant role in the overall sensory experience of consuming cannabis. In addition to its olfactory attributes, sabinene has gained attention for its potential health benefits. It is known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, making it a subject of interest in the field of natural medicine. While sabinene is present in relatively lower concentrations compared to cannabinoids like THC and CBD, it is believed to have a synergistic effect with other cannabis compounds, enhancing the overall therapeutic potential of the plant. Although more research is needed to fully understand the specific pharmacological effects and potential medical applications of sabinene from cannabis, it exemplifies the complexity and diversity of chemical constituents present in this versatile plant.

In the study conducted by Valente et al. (2013) and published in Food and Chemical Toxicology, the anti-inflammatory properties of Sabinene, a constituent of Oenanthe crocata L. essential oil, are investigated along with its antifungal and antioxidant activities. The researchers explore the potential health benefits of the essential oil derived from Oenanthe crocata L., a plant commonly used in traditional medicine, to understand its pharmacological effects. The study finds that the essential oil, rich in Sabinene, exhibits significant anti-inflammatory effects, which could be attributed to its ability to modulate immune responses and attenuate inflammatory pathways. The anti-inflammatory potential of Sabinene is of particular interest, as it may have implications for the development of natural therapeutic agents for conditions characterized by excessive inflammation. This research provides valuable insights into the multifaceted pharmacological properties of Sabinene and contributes to our understanding of its potential applications in the management of inflammatory disorders.

The research by Arunkumar et al. (2014) published in the Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute investigates the essential oil constituents of Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers and evaluates their potential anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. In this study, the anti-bacterial properties of Sabinene, one of the essential oil constituents of Zornia diphylla, are explored. The results suggest that the essential oil exhibits antimicrobial effects, including anti-bacterial activity. Sabinene, as a significant component of the essential oil, likely contributes to these antimicrobial properties. The study’s findings underscore the potential of Sabinene as a natural compound with anti-bacterial potential, which could have implications for the development of novel antibacterial agents. This research expands our understanding of Sabinene’s pharmacological attributes and its possible application in combating bacterial infections.

The study conducted by Babalwa Tembeni and colleagues (2019) and published in the Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants investigates the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of two essential oils from Pelargonium inquinans Ait, including both wild and cultivated varieties. The research explores the potential analgesic properties of Sabinene, a constituent present in these essential oils. The study’s results suggest that the essential oils possess analgesic activity, which could be attributed to the presence of compounds like Sabinene. This finding implies that Sabinene might contribute to the observed analgesic effects of the essential oils derived from Pelargonium inquinans. The research contributes to our understanding of Sabinene’s potential pharmacological attributes and supports the exploration of natural compounds for pain management. This study highlights the significance of Sabinene in the context of analgesic properties, which could have implications for the development of alternative pain-relief approaches.

Muscle Relaxant, Asthma: Bronchodilator/Anti-Inflammatory 

Linalool (LN) is a naturally occurring terpene that is found not only in cannabis but also in various other plants, including lavender, basil, and mint. It is known for its pleasant floral aroma and is a common component of essential oils used in aromatherapy and perfumery. In cannabis, linalool contributes to the plant’s complex chemical profile and is responsible for some of the strain-specific scents and flavors. Beyond its aromatic properties, linalool has gained attention for its potential health benefits. It is believed to possess anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anxiolytic properties, which make it of interest in both traditional and alternative medicine. Some research also suggests that linalool may have neuroprotective effects and could play a role in modulating the effects of cannabinoids, such as THC and CBD, found in cannabis. However, while linalool shows promise in various therapeutic applications, further research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and its potential as a standalone or complementary treatment in various medical conditions.

The article titled “Inhaled linalool-induced sedation in mice,” published in Phytomedicine in 2009, explores the sedative effects of linalool. The study investigates how inhaled linalool induces sedation in mice, shedding light on its potential as a sedative agent. The findings indicate that linalool inhalation does indeed lead to sedation in mice, suggesting that this terpene has a calming and soothing effect on the central nervous system. Linalool’s sedative properties may be attributed to its ability to modulate neurotransmitter levels or interact with specific receptors in the brain, ultimately promoting relaxation and sedation. While this study is conducted in mice, it offers valuable insights into the potential sedative effects of linalool, which could have implications for its use in natural remedies for anxiety, insomnia, and stress relief. Likewise, the article titled “Sedative effect on humans of inhalation of essential oil of linalool” published in Analytica Chimica Acta in 1998 investigates the sedative effects of linalool. The study examines the impact of inhaling the essential oil of linalool on human subjects. The findings of the research suggest that linalool inhalation has a sedative effect on humans. However, it’s essential to note that while this study provides valuable insights into linalool’s sedative effects, further research, including clinical trials and a broader range of participants, would be necessary to establish its efficacy and safety as a natural sedative remedy for a wider population. Nonetheless, this research underscores the potential therapeutic benefits of linalool in the context of promoting relaxation and reducing anxiety.

The article titled “Anxiolytic-like effects of inhaled linalool oxide in experimental mouse anxiety models,” published in Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior in 2011, investigates the anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects of linalool oxide through inhalation. This study explores how linalool oxide, a derivative of linalool, affects anxiety in experimental mouse models. The findings suggest that inhaled linalool oxide exhibits anxiolytic-like effects, meaning it may have the potential to reduce anxiety-related behaviors in mice. This indicates that linalool oxide could influence neural pathways involved in anxiety regulation, making it a potential candidate for anxiety management. The article titled “Linalool Odor-Induced Anxiolytic Effects in Mice,” published in Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience in 2018, also found that inhalation of linalool odor influences and lowers anxiety levels in mice.While these results are promising, further research, including clinical studies in humans, would be necessary to ascertain the practical applications of linalool oxide in anxiety treatment. Nevertheless, these studies provide valuable insights into the potential anxiolytic properties of linalool and its derivatives.

The article titled “Neuroprotective effects of Coriandrum sativum and its constituent, linalool: A review,” published in Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine in 2021, provides a comprehensive analysis of the neuroprotective properties of linalool. The review discusses the potential neuroprotective effects of linalool, which is a prominent constituent of Coriandrum sativum, commonly known as coriander. It highlights that linalool may offer protective benefits to the nervous system. While the exact mechanisms are still being studied, linalool is believed to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, both of which are vital for safeguarding the brain against oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, two processes implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. This research underscores the potential of linalool as a natural compound with neuroprotective capabilities, which could have significant implications in the development of strategies for preventing or managing neurological disorders. Moreover, the article titled “L-linalool exerts a neuroprotective action on hemiparkinsonian rats,” published in Naunyn-Schmiedeberg’s Archives of Pharmacology in 2020, investigates the neuroprotective properties of linalool. The research focuses on how L-linalool, a common enantiomer of linalool found in several aromatic plants, exerts its neuroprotective effects in a hemiparkinsonian rat model. The study suggests that L-linalool exhibits neuroprotective actions by safeguarding against neurodegeneration, particularly in the context of Parkinson’s disease. It implies that L-linalool may modulate various cellular mechanisms to protect neurons from damage and deterioration, potentially making it a promising therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative conditions. However, it is crucial to emphasize that while these findings are encouraging, further research, including clinical trials in human subjects, is essential to validate the practical applications of L-linalool as a neuroprotective compound. Nonetheless, this study contributes valuable insights into the potential neuroprotective properties of linalool and its derivatives.

Sedative, brain stimulant, anti-fungal

Terpinolene (TE) is one of the many aromatic terpenes found in the cannabis plant, contributing to its distinct aroma and flavor profile. While terpinolene is present in several other plants, such as pine trees, sage, and some citrus fruits, its presence in cannabis adds complexity to the plant’s chemical composition. Terpinolene is known for its potential therapeutic properties, including its calming and sedative effects, which can contribute to the overall relaxing experience associated with certain cannabis strains. Additionally, terpinolene has shown antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, making it a subject of interest in the field of natural medicine. Its potential to modulate the endocannabinoid system and interact with other compounds found in cannabis, such as cannabinoids and other terpenes, underscores the complexity of the entourage effect, where various cannabis compounds may work together to produce unique physiological effects. Terpinolene’s multifaceted properties make it a valuable component in the diverse array of compounds found in the cannabis plant, with potential implications for both recreational and medicinal use.

The study by Ito and Ito (2013) published in the Journal of Natural Medicines investigates the sedative effects of inhaled terpinolene in mice and explores its structure-activity relationships. Through rigorous experimentation, the authors shed light on terpinolene’s potential as a sedative agent. By examining the chemical structure of terpinolene and its impact on sedation, the research offers insights into the molecular mechanisms that underlie its effects. The study underscores the significance of terpinolene as a naturally occurring compound with sedative properties, paving the way for further exploration of its therapeutic potential in managing sleep-related issues or anxiety. This article provides valuable insights into the pharmacological properties of terpinolene, contributing to the understanding of its role as a sedative agent and encouraging future research into its applications for promoting relaxation and tranquility.

In the study conducted by Kandhasamy Sowndhararajan et al. (2015) and published in the European Journal of Integrative Medicine, the brain stimulant properties of terpinolene are explored in the context of olfactory stimulation. Through investigations involving isomeric aroma compounds, specifically (+)-limonene and terpinolene, the researchers delve into their effects on human electroencephalographic (EEG) activity. This research sheds light on the potential brain stimulant properties of terpinolene, as indicated by its influence on EEG patterns. The study contributes to our understanding of terpinolene’s impact on brain activity, suggesting its role in promoting alertness and enhancing cognitive function. By investigating the neurophysiological response to olfactory stimulation with terpinolene, this article provides insights into the compound’s brain stimulant potential and opens avenues for further research into its applications for cognitive enhancement and neurological well-being.

The study conducted by Pinto et al. (2021) and published in the journal Letters in Applied Microbiology explores the antifungal properties of terpinolene in conjunction with dihydrojasmone against dermatophytes, a type of fungi that cause various skin infections. By investigating the potential synergistic effects of terpinolene and dihydrojasmone with the antifungal drug terbinafine, the researchers aim to enhance the efficacy of antifungal treatment. The study’s findings indicate that terpinolene, in combination with dihydrojasmone, can potentiate the antifungal activity of terbinafine against dermatophytes. Terpinolene has antifungal properties because it exerts antifungal activity by disrupting the integrity of the fungal cell membrane and inducing oxidative stress within the fungal cells. This suggests that terpinolene holds promise as a natural antifungal agent and could potentially be used to augment the effectiveness of existing antifungal treatments. The research contributes to our understanding of terpinolene’s potential in combating fungal infections, offering new insights into alternative and complementary approaches to managing dermatophyte-related conditions.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-bacterial

Humulene (HU) is one of the many terpenes found in the cannabis plant, and it is also present in various other plants, such as hops, sage, and ginseng. This terpene contributes to the complex aroma and flavor profile of cannabis and is characterized by its earthy, woody, and subtly spicy notes. Beyond its role in scent and taste, humulene is known for its potential therapeutic properties. It has been studied for its anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and appetite-suppressing effects, which make it an intriguing compound in both traditional herbal medicine and modern research. Humulene’s anti-inflammatory properties, in particular, have garnered attention for their potential in the treatment of various inflammatory conditions. Moreover, humulene is often found in conjunction with other cannabinoids and terpenes in the cannabis plant, and this synergy, known as the “entourage effect,” suggests that it may enhance or modulate the effects of other cannabis compounds. While more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms of action and potential medical applications, humulene remains an essential and fascinating component of the cannabis plant’s chemical profile.

The article titled “Preventive and therapeutic anti-inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene α-humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation,” published in the British Journal of Pharmacology in 2009, investigates the anti-inflammatory properties of α-humulene. This study focuses on how α-humulene, a sesquiterpene found in various plant sources, may prevent and alleviate airway inflammation in experimental models. The research suggests that α-humulene exhibits significant anti-inflammatory effects through its interaction with various molecular pathways involved in the inflammatory response. It can be used both as a preventive measure and as a therapeutic agent in allergic airway inflammation. These findings underscore α-humulene’s potential as an anti-inflammatory compound, possibly due to its ability to modulate inflammatory pathways and reduce the release of pro-inflammatory mediators. While the study’s results are promising, further research, including clinical trials in humans, would be necessary to fully understand the practical applications of α-humulene in managing inflammatory conditions. Nonetheless, this research provides valuable evidence supporting the anti-inflammatory properties of α-humulene, highlighting its potential as a natural therapeutic agent.

The article titled “Potentiating effect of beta-caryophyllene on anticancer activity of alpha-humulene, isocaryophyllene and paclitaxel,” published in the Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology in 2007, investigates the potential anti-cancer properties of humulene and its interaction with other compounds. The study explores how beta-caryophyllene, a terpene related to humulene, enhances the anticancer activity of alpha-humulene, isocaryophyllene, and paclitaxel. The findings suggest that beta-caryophyllene amplifies the anticancer effects of these compounds, highlighting the potential of humulene and its derivatives in cancer therapy. This study indicates that humulene, in combination with certain other compounds, may play a role in potentiating the response to anticancer treatments. Similarly, the article titled “α-Humulene inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation and induces apoptosis through the inhibition of Akt signaling,” published in Food and Chemical Toxicology in 2019, delves into the potential anti-cancer properties of humulene. This study investigates how alpha-humulene, a compound closely related to humulene, affects the proliferation and survival of hepatocellular carcinoma cells. The findings suggest that alpha-humulene can inhibit cancer cell growth and induce apoptosis, a process of programmed cell death, by targeting the Akt signaling pathway. Akt signaling is known to play a critical role in cell survival and proliferation, and its inhibition may lead to the suppression of cancer cell growth. While this research is promising, it’s important to note that these results are based on laboratory experiments, and further research, including pre-clinical and clinical studies, would be necessary to determine the practical applications of humulene in cancer treatment. Nonetheless, these studies provide valuable evidence to support the potential anti-cancer properties of humulene and its derivatives.

The article titled “Antibacterial and antibiofilm effects of α-humulene against Bacteroides fragilis,” published in the Canadian Journal of Microbiology in 2020, investigates the antibacterial properties of α-humulene. This study focuses on how α-humulene, a compound related to humulene, affects the bacterium Bacteroides fragilis. The research suggests that α-humulene demonstrates significant antibacterial activity against this pathogenic bacterium. Moreover, it appears to exhibit antibiofilm effects, indicating that α-humulene may disrupt the formation of bacterial biofilms—a critical factor in bacterial infections and antibiotic resistance. These findings underscore the potential of humulene and its derivatives as natural antibacterial agents and highlight their relevance in addressing bacterial infections and biofilm-related issues. Further research may unveil additional applications of humulene in combating microbial threats.

Anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, antidepressant

Caryophyllene (CA), specifically referred to as beta-caryophyllene (BCP), is a prominent terpene found in cannabis and various other plants, including black pepper, cloves, and rosemary. What makes caryophyllene particularly interesting is its unique interaction with the endocannabinoid system (ECS). Unlike most terpenes, caryophyllene is considered a dietary cannabinoid because it acts as a selective agonist for the CB2 (cannabinoid receptor type 2) receptor in the ECS. This interaction suggests that caryophyllene may exert potential therapeutic effects, such as anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, without directly binding to the CB1 receptors that are responsible for the psychotropic effects of THC. As a result, caryophyllene-rich cannabis strains are of growing interest in the field of medical cannabis, and research into its various health benefits is ongoing.

The article titled “Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of Caryophyllene oxide from Annona squamosa L. bark,” published in Phytomedicine in 2010, investigates the anti-inflammatory properties of Caryophyllene oxide. The study examines how Caryophyllene oxide, a derivative of caryophyllene found in the bark of Annona squamosa L., exerts its anti-inflammatory effects. The research suggests that Caryophyllene oxide demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory activity, potentially through its modulation of various pathways involved in the inflammatory response. This finding highlights caryophyllene’s potential as an anti-inflammatory agent, supporting its traditional use in herbal medicine for addressing inflammation-related conditions. The study “In vivo anti-inflammatory activity of β-caryophyllene, evaluated by molecular imaging” by Saad S. Dahham, et al. evaluated the anti-inflammatory properties on a carrageenan-induced rat hind paw edema model and found that after the peak of the swelling in the paws, an injection with beta-caryophyllene inhibited the development of edema. However, it’s essential to note that while these studies provide promising insights, further research, including clinical trials, is necessary to validate the practical applications of caryophyllene and its derivatives as anti-inflammatory compounds in clinical settings. Nonetheless, this research contributes valuable evidence to support caryophyllene’s anti-inflammatory properties.

In the article “β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide—natural compounds of anticancer and analgesic properties” by Fidyt et al. (2016), the authors explore the anti-cancer properties of β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide, two natural compounds found in various plant sources. The study sheds light on the potential therapeutic applications of these compounds in cancer treatment. The article highlights that β-caryophyllene and its oxide derivative possess promising anti-cancer properties, primarily through their ability to induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells, inhibit angiogenesis (the formation of new blood vessels that supply tumors), and modulate signaling pathways associated with cell proliferation and survival. These findings suggest that β-caryophyllene and β-caryophyllene oxide have the potential to be developed into novel anti-cancer therapies, offering a natural and potentially less toxic approach to combating cancer. However, further research and clinical studies are needed to fully explore their efficacy and safety in cancer treatment. Correspondingly, in the study conducted by Legault and Pichette in 2007, the authors investigated the potential anti-cancer properties of β-caryophyllene, a natural sesquiterpene found in various plant species, by examining its synergistic effects with other compounds such as α-humulene, isocaryophyllene, and paclitaxel. Their findings revealed that β-caryophyllene possesses significant anticancer activity, as it was able to enhance the anticancer effects of the aforementioned compounds. This suggests that β-caryophyllene may play a crucial role in augmenting the efficacy of cancer treatment strategies, potentially by enhancing the cytotoxicity of existing chemotherapeutic agents like paclitaxel. These results underscore the importance of exploring natural compounds like β-caryophyllene in the development of novel cancer therapies and combination treatments, offering promising avenues for future research in the field of oncology. 

In the article titled “Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice” by Amine Bahi et al. published in Physiology & Behavior in 2014, the authors explore the potential anxiolytic and antidepressant properties of Caryophyllene. Caryophyllene is investigated as a CB2 receptor agonist, which suggests its involvement in the endocannabinoid system. The study utilizes a mouse model to demonstrate that Caryophyllene induces various behavioral changes that are pertinent to anxiety and depression. This suggests that Caryophyllene may have a role in modulating these mood-related disorders. The activation of CB2 receptors by Caryophyllene is hypothesized to contribute to its anxiolytic and antidepressant effects. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential therapeutic applications of Caryophyllene in the management of anxiety and depression, though further research is needed to confirm its efficacy and safety in human subjects.

Reduces cholesterol, analgesic, antioxidant

Camphene (CM) is a naturally occurring monoterpene found in various cannabis strains, contributing to the plant’s complex chemical profile. It is one of several terpenes found in cannabis that are responsible for its distinct aroma and flavor. Camphene has a woody and earthy scent with hints of pine, and it is commonly associated with other aromatic terpenes like myrcene and pinene. While Camphene’s presence in cannabis is relatively low compared to more abundant terpenes like myrcene and limonene, it is believed to have potential therapeutic properties. Camphene has been studied for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and analgesic effects, which could contribute to the overall medicinal properties of cannabis strains that contain this terpene. However, further research is needed to fully understand the specific therapeutic applications and mechanisms of Camphene in cannabis and other natural products.

The study titled “Camphene, a Plant-Derived Monoterpene, Reduces Plasma Cholesterol and Triglycerides in Hyperlipidemic Rats Independently of HMG-CoA Reductase Activity,” published in PLoS ONE in 2011, explores the potential cholesterol-reducing effects of camphene. The research investigates how camphene, a naturally occurring monoterpene derived from plants, affects plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels in hyperlipidemic rats. Notably, the study suggests that camphene can lower cholesterol and triglycerides in these rats, and it operates independently of the HMG-CoA reductase enzyme activity, which is a target for many cholesterol-lowering medications. This suggests that camphene may have a unique mechanism of action in reducing cholesterol and triglyceride levels. However, it’s important to note that further research, including clinical studies in humans, would be necessary to validate these effects and explore the practical applications of camphene in managing hyperlipidemia and cardiovascular health. Nevertheless, this study provides valuable insights into the potential cholesterol-reducing properties of camphene.

The article titled “Plant-derived antioxidants – Geraniol and camphene protect rat alveolar macrophages against t-BHP induced oxidative stress,” published in Toxicology in Vitro in 2009, investigates the potential antioxidant effects of camphene. This study explores how camphene, a plant-derived compound, protects rat alveolar macrophages from oxidative stress induced by t-BHP (tert-Butyl hydroperoxide). The findings suggest that camphene, along with geraniol, another plant-derived antioxidant, offers protection against oxidative stress by effectively mitigating the damaging effects of t-BHP. Camphene’s antioxidant properties, as demonstrated in this study, indicate its potential to counteract oxidative stress, which is implicated in various diseases, including cancer and cardiovascular disorders. Meanwhile, the findings in “Antioxidant Properties of Camphene-Based Thiosemicarbazones: Experimental and Theoretical Evaluation,” suggest that camphene-based thiosemicarbazones exhibit antioxidant properties, which can be essential for neutralizing harmful free radicals and preventing oxidative stress-related damage in the body. However, while these results are promising, further research, including studies involving human subjects, would be needed to fully understand the extent of camphene’s antioxidant capabilities and its practical applications in preventing oxidative damage and related health conditions.

The article titled “Plant-derived antioxidants – Geraniol and camphene protect rat alveolar macrophages against t-BHP induced oxidative stress,” published in Toxicology in Vitro in 2009, investigates the potential antioxidant effects of camphene. This study explores how camphene, a plant-derived compound, protects rat alveolar macrophages from oxidative stress induced by t-BHP (tert-Butyl hydroperoxide). The findings suggest that camphene, along with geraniol, another plant-derived antioxidant, offers protection against oxidative stress by effectively mitigating the damaging effects of t-BHP. Camphene’s antioxidant properties, as demonstrated in this study, indicate its potential to counteract oxidative stress, which is implicated in various diseases, including cancer and cardiovascular disorders. Meanwhile, the findings in “Antioxidant Properties of Camphene-Based Thiosemicarbazones: Experimental and Theoretical Evaluation,” suggest that camphene-based thiosemicarbazones exhibit antioxidant properties, which can be essential for neutralizing harmful free radicals and preventing oxidative stress-related damage in the body. However, while these results are promising, further research, including studies involving human subjects, would be needed to fully understand the extent of camphene’s antioxidant capabilities and its practical applications in preventing oxidative damage and related health conditions.

Muscle Relaxant, Asthma: Bronchodilator/Anti-Inflammatory 

Myrcene (MY) is a terpene commonly found in cannabis and
various other plants, including hops, thyme, and lemongrass. It is
one of the most abundant terpenes in many cannabis strains and contributes to the plant’s characteristic aroma. Myrcene is known for its potential therapeutic properties and its role in the entourage effect, where various cannabis compounds work together to produce enhanced therapeutic effects. Myrcene is believed to have a relaxing and sedative effect, and it may contribute to the “couch-lock” sensation often associated with indica-dominant
strains of cannabis. This terpene has also been studied for its
potential anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and muscle-relaxant
properties, which could be valuable in medical cannabis applications. Additionally, myrcene is thought to enhance the
absorption of cannabinoids like THC, which may influence the
overall psychoactive effects of cannabis. Its diverse range of
potential effects and interactions with other compounds in
cannabis make myrcene an intriguing component of the plant for both recreational and medicinal users.

The research conducted by Jansen et al. (2019) in the journal
Channels investigates the analgesic properties of myrcene, a
prominent terpene found in cannabis and various other plants. The study focuses on myrcene’s interaction with the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channel, which plays a crucial role in pain perception. Through a detailed analysis, the authors demonstrate that myrcene has the potential to modulate TRPV1 channel activity, thus influencing pain sensation and perception. By shedding light on the mechanisms by which myrcene may
exert its analgesic effects, the study offers valuable insights into
its therapeutic potential in pain management. This research
highlights the intricate relationship between terpenes like myrcene
and the endocannabinoid system’s components, contributing to the understanding of the multifaceted effects of cannabis compounds on pain pathways. Further exploration of myrcene’s analgesic properties could potentially lead to the development of novel analgesic agents for various pain conditions.

The study conducted by Kim et al. (2020) and published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences explores the therapeutic potential of volatile terpenes and terpenoids from forests for inflammatory diseases. In their investigation, the authors delve into the anti-inflammatory properties of various natural compounds, including myrcene, which is found in forest-derived terpenes. The article highlights myrcene as one of the bioactive compounds that possess anti-inflammatory effects and discusses its potential application in managing inflammatory diseases. For example, the research conducted by McDougall and McKenna (2022) and published in the International Journal of Molecular Sciences investigates the anti-inflammatory properties of the cannabis terpene myrcene using a rat adjuvant monoarthritis model. In their study, the authors delve into the potential of myrcene to alleviate inflammation and pain associated with arthritic conditions. Through their experiments, they demonstrate that myrcene exhibits both anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects in the rat adjuvant monoarthritis model. The study’s findings highlight myrcene’s potential as a natural therapeutic agent for managing inflammatory conditions and related pain. By revealing the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of myrcene, this research contributes to the growing body of evidence supporting the use of plant-derived compounds in the development of novel anti-inflammatory treatments.

In the study conducted by Wu et al. (2022) and published in the Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, the potential anti-tumor properties of myrcene are investigated in the context of oral cancer cells. The researchers explore the effects of myrcene on oral cancer cells in vitro and specifically focus on its role in inducing apoptosis, a programmed cell death mechanism that is crucial for controlling tumor growth. By evaluating the impact of myrcene on cell viability and apoptotic pathways, the study sheds light on the potential anti-tumor activity of myrcene in oral cancer. Similarly, the article by Tomko et al. (2020) published in Cancers explores the anti-cancer potential of various compounds present in cannabis, including cannabinoids, terpenes, and flavonoids, with a specific focus on myrcene. The authors delve into the accumulating evidence regarding myrcene’s anti-tumor properties, elucidating its potential mechanisms of action and therapeutic implications. By examining the interplay between myrcene and other compounds within the cannabis plant, the study highlights the synergistic effects that can contribute to the overall anti-cancer activity of cannabis extracts. The comprehensive approach of this research underscores the importance of considering the holistic composition of cannabis in assessing its therapeutic potential, especially in the context of cancer treatment. The article serves as a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians seeking a deeper understanding of how myrcene, in conjunction with other cannabis-derived components, may offer promising avenues for the development of innovative anti-cancer strategies.

Anti-seizure, anti-inflammatory, Crohn’s, IBD

Tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid A (THCVA-A) is a lesser-known cannabinoid compound found in the cannabis plant. It is a derivative of cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), which is a precursor for various cannabinoids in the cannabis plant. THCVA-A is a non-psychoactive cannabinoid, meaning it does not produce the intoxicating effects commonly associated with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). While research on THCVA-A is limited compared to other cannabinoids like THC and CBD, it is believed to have potential therapeutic properties. Some preliminary studies suggest that THCVA-A may exhibit anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and appetite-suppressing effects. However, much more research is needed to fully understand the pharmacological properties and potential medical applications of THCVA-A, as well as its interaction with other cannabinoids and compounds in the cannabis plant.

In the Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics article by Petrosino et al. (2018), the authors provide valuable insights into the anti-inflammatory properties of tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid A (THCVA-A). Through a comprehensive experimental approach, the study explores the potential of THCVA-A as a potent anti-inflammatory agent. By examining its effects on immune cell activation, cytokine production, and signaling pathways, the researchers demonstrate that THCVA-A possesses notable anti-inflammatory properties. The study highlights THCVA-A’s ability to modulate the immune response by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibiting key cellular pathways involved in inflammation. These findings contribute to the understanding of the pharmacological actions of THCVA-A, adding to the growing body of research that investigates the potential therapeutic applications of minor cannabinoids. The study underscores the importance of exploring diverse cannabinoids beyond the well-studied compounds like THC and CBD, emphasizing their potential in developing novel anti-inflammatory interventions for various inflammatory conditions.